2.3.2 Imposition of a duty to act -- 2.3.3 Breach of duty to act -- 2.3.4 Reform -- 2.4 Causation -- 2.4.1 Factual causation -- 2.4.2 Legal causation -- Sample essay questions -- Further reading -- 3 Mens Rea -- 3.1 The mental element -- 3.2 Intention -- 3.2.1 Direct intention -- 3.2.2 Oblique intention -- 3.3 Recklessness -- 3.3.1 The Cunningham test -- 3.3.2 The Caldwell years: 1981-2003 -- 3.3.3 Back to Cunningham: G and another -- 3.4 Negligence -- 3.5 Dishonesty -- 3.6 Transferred malice -- 3.7 Coincidence of actus reus and mens rea -- Sample essay question -- Further reading -- 4 Strict Liability -- 4.1 Absolute liability -- 4.2 Strict liability -- 4.2.1 No due diligence defence -- 4.2.2 No defence of mistake -- 4.2.3 Summary of strict liability -- 4.3 Common law strict liability offences -- 4.4 Statutory strict liability offences -- 4.4.1 The presumption of mens rea -- 4.4.2 The Gammon criteria -- 4.4.3 Looking at the wording of an Act -- 4.4.4 Quasi-criminal offences -- 4.4.5 Strict liability and human rights -- 4.4.6 Issues of social concern -- 4.4.7 Promoting enforcement of the law -- 4.4.8 Twenty-first-century cases -- 4.5 Justification for strict liability -- 4.5.1 Arguments against strict liability -- 4.6 Proposals for reform -- Sample essay question -- Further reading -- 5 Parties to a Crime -- 5.1 Principal offenders -- 5.1.1 Difficulties in identifying the principal -- 5.2 Innocent agents -- 5.3 Secondary parties -- 5.3.1 Actus reus of secondary parties: aiding, abetting, counselling or procuring -- 5.3.2 Mens rea of secondary parties -- 5.4 Withdrawal from participation -- 5.4.1 Pre-planned criminal activity -- 5.4.2 Spontaneous criminal activity -- 5.5 Assisting an offender -- 5.6 Reform -- Sample essay question -- Further reading -- 6 Inchoate Offences -- 6.1 Inchoate offences -- 6.2 Attempt -- 6.2.1 Actus reus of attempt